Only Christian believers can or should be theologians Essay

Using quotations from at least three written texts (ancient and/or modern), argue the case for or against the view that only Christian believers can or should be theologians Before attempting to answer this question, one must define some principles of the nature of Christian theology. It is obvious that anyone may create a theology based purely on ideas from one’s own imagination, with no boundaries or guidelines to it. Such a theology may be creative, intelligent, and reasonable, but could not be classed as Christian theology. Something must act as a rule and a guard, lest the Christian religion break down into nothing more than dispersed, individual, self-made theologies. Theology in a Christian context must and does find its foundation in Scripture, â€Å"the supreme authority to life and thought† (Vanhoozer 1998, p. 380). Now that the thing that is to be interpreted in the building of Christian theology has been identified as Scripture, one may ask the question of who is able and qualified to interpret it. In 1860, Benjamin Jowett published his essay, â€Å"On the Interpretation of Scripture†. He argued that the Bible should be regarded as any other ancient collections of literature, using tools of literary and historical scholarship. He implied that a critic who stands apart from traditional beliefs and practices is in a better position to find the true meaning of the text, as these traditions had obscured their true meaning. In other words, only those with the right scholarly tools and who were willing to suspend any belief in the text that they may have are able to correctly interpret it (Vanhoozer 1998, pp. 378-379). However, Jowett’s view of interpretation omits the spiritual and the ethical dimensions of Biblical interpretation. Vanhoozer writes: To call the Bible Scripture does not make its warnings or its promises something other than warnings or promises, but rather reorients them to the larger purpose of â€Å"making wise unto salvation†¦ â€Å". (Vanhoozer 1998, p. 380). Jowett’s approach to interpretation requires an objective reading of the text. But can one properly interpret the Scriptures from such a standpoint? To answer this, one must examine the relationship between the reader, the text, the author, and the story. Upon reading, the reader reads the text, and in doing so reconstructs the author in his own imagination, creating an ‘implied author’, and bringing the story to life (actualising the text) from the marks on the written page (Voelz 1995, 1997, pp. 218- 219). Voelz goes on to state that the intended recipient of the text is: †¦a reader of whom the author is conscious, one who may also be called â€Å"implied†. And this implied reader stands in the same relationship to the actual reader as the implied author stands to the actual author; he is, again, a construct, not in the real world, and he is detectable (only) in the text. Who then is a valid interpreter of a text? It is he who conforms to the expectations of the author. It is he who conforms himself to the given text’s assumptions. It is he who becomes the implied reader – and only such a one – of a given text. Which means that an â€Å"objective† reading of a text is not only impossible; it is not to be desired! (Voelz 1995, 1997, p. 219) One can see that what is needed for correct interpretation of Scripture, is a subjective, rather than objective reading of the text. Voelz argues a reader interprets within a community, having developed the beliefs and attitudes of the implied reader, through discussion, experience, and training within that community which understands and appreciates the context of the â€Å"implied reader†. Therefore: A valid interpreter of a text†¦ is that person†¦ who assumes the role â€Å"required† as it were, by a given text – who becomes the reader â€Å"implied† or called for by that very text. And such a one is formed to assume that role by a community, a community which has assumed that role itself. (Voelz 1995, 1997, p. 220) This, however, does not make every Christian community’s interpretation infallible, because humans err; thus different Christian communities often disagree on the interpretation of certain parts of Scripture. But, as the Church is a community within which these documents were produced, received, and preserved, Vanhoozer states: [The] Bible is more likely to be misunderstood by an unbelieving and unaffiliated individual than by a believing and practising member of the church. (Vanhoozer 1998, p. 378) In the case of the New Testament, the books were produced, received, and preserved by the Christian community, and following Voelz’s argument, one has to be within a Christian community, and taught to read Scripture by that community, to be able to correctly interpret the New Testament. The issue of the interpretation of the Old Testament is one that is referred to in the New Testament. Speaking of the reading of Scripture by the Jews: Yes, to this day, whenever Moses is read a veil lies over their hearts. But when one turns to the Lord, the veil is removed. (2 Cor. 3:15-16 ESV) According to Paul’s argument, the Jews do not believe, therefore they cannot, in their unbelieving state, be the â€Å"implied reader† of the Old Testament Scriptures. Apparently, simply being within the Jewish community is insufficient to correctly interpret these Scriptures, as more than a simple, straightforward understanding of the Hebrew text is needed. Luke 24:45 ESV reads, concerning Jesus and his disciples, â€Å"Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures.† Minds must be opened, veils taken away. The Christian community must teach readers to interpret even the Old Testament books. Only within the Christian community can one’s mind be changed in the proper way (Voelz 1995, 1997, p. 226). The reason for this is clear from the New Testament’s claims regarding the Christocentricity of all Scripture, Old and New Testaments: You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me†¦ (Jn. 5:39 ESV. Cf. Mt. 2:4-6, 14-15; 1 Cor. 10:11, 15:3-4; 2 Cor. 1:20; Heb. 9:11-12; 1 Pet. 1:10-12) In order to be within the Christian community, one must adhere to and confess its creeds. Voelz writes: Therefore, to adhere to the creeds gives one an orientation to the books of the NT†¦. which is â€Å"congenial† to them and which†¦ allows/enables one to interpret them in accordance with their intention†¦ [Adherence] to the creeds enables one to â€Å"matrix† the signifiers and meanings of a text for interpretation and then to interpret that matrix in a way which is â€Å"congenial† to the text, for the creeds are of one piece with that text and provide, as it were, the interpretive â€Å"key,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ determinative for the meaning of the complex signifiers under construction†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ [The] creeds help to determine which readings of Scripture are the apostolic/Christian readings which may legitimately be drawn from them. (Voelz 1995, 1997, p. 222) It was precisely the misuse of Scripture by heretics, which caused the early Church father, Tertullian, to write regarding them: [We] oppose to them this step above all others, of not admitting them to any discussion of the Scriptures. If in these lie their resources, before they can use them, it ought to be clearly seen to whom belongs the possession of the Scriptures, that none may be admitted to the use thereof who has no title at all to the privilege. (Roberts & Donaldson 1994, 1995, Vol. 1 p.250 -Chapter XV of On Prescription Against Heretics. See also: chapters XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX pp. 250-252) Tertullian’s belief was that the Scriptures were the property of the Christian Church alone, and not to be handled by those outside of it. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, against the Valentinians, wrote: [They] endeavour to adapt with an air of probability to their own peculiar assertions the parables of the Lord, the sayings of the prophets, and the words of the apostles, in order that their scheme may not seem altogether without support. In doing so, however, they disregard the order and the connection of the Scriptures, and so far as in them lies, dismember and destroy the truth. By transferring passages, and dressing them up anew, and making one thing out of another, they succeed in deluding many through their wicked art in adapting the oracles of the Lord to their opinions. (Roberts & Donaldson 1994, 1995, Vol. 3. p. 326 -Chapter VIII of Against Heresies) In conclusion, there seem to be many problems opposing the idea of those outside of the Christian Church being theologians, not least the question of motive, as the early Church fathers addressed. For these reasons, I believe that theology is a matter only for those within the Church. Bibliography * Roberts, A. & Donaldson J. (Editors); 1994, 1995; Ante-Nicene Fathers; Peabody, Massachusetts; Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. * Vanhoozer, K. 1998; Is There a Meaning in This Text?; Leicester; Apollos/IVP. * Voelz, J. 1995, 1997; What Does This Mean?: Principles of Biblical Interpretation in the Post-Modern World; St. Louis, Missouri; Concordia Publishing House. * The Holy Bible – English Standard Version; 2001, 2002; Wheaton, Illinois; Crossway Bibles

John Steinbeck’s ‘Of Mice and Men’ Essay

John Steinbeck was born in 1902, in Salinas, California. He was the third eldest of the four children born, but was the only male in the family, besides his father. He graduated from Salinas High School in 1919, and attended Stanford University, but leaving without a degree. He was employed in the beginning as a sales clerk, farm labourer factory worker. Later, in 1925, he became a construction worker in New York. He wrote his first novel, â€Å"Cup of Gold†, in 1929. During the period of the 1930’s, he produced most of his eminent novels such as â€Å"To A God Unknown†, â€Å"Tortilla Flat†, â€Å"Dubious Battle†, â€Å"Of Mice and Men†, and the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel ‘The Grapes of Wrath’. The themes of his books can all be classified as social novels dealing with the economic problems of rural labour, but there is also a streak of worship in his books, which does not always agree with his matter-of-fact sociological approach. After 1935, his novels moved to more serious fiction, often bellicose in its social criticism. The novels are mostly set in remote farms or by the usual rustic country side. He died in New York City in 1968, and his ashes lie in the Garden of Memories Cemetery in Salinas. Part 2: Exploration of the setting of ‘Of Mice and Men’ The context of this novel mainly focuses on a small working ranch in the Salinas Valley of Northern California, sometime during the 1930’s. It starts beside a stream, close to the Salinas River, a few miles south of Soledad. The four major settings are the clearing by the pond, the bunkhouse, Crook’s room and the barn. The action occurs over a period of four to five days and in only four specific locations: a wooded area next to the Salinas River, a bunkhouse on the ranch, the stable hand’s room on the ranch and the main barn. The tight structure of setting, revolving around single locations and continuous timing, almost makes the novel seem like a play. It takes place during the Great Depression, hence the main characters seem poor and desperate for work. Steinbeck had chosen the area of Soledad because in Spanish, it means loneliness, and therefore adds to the essence of Steinbeck’s story which tells us of how to part-brothers go to find work. Part 3: Historical Context The Great Depression (1929-1939) – * Was a time of extreme hardship for people in Australia * Was caused by the stock-market crash on Wall Street, 1929 * Before this happened, unemployment issues in Australia was already at 10% * After the crash, unemployment in Australia more than doubled to 21% in mid-1930, and reached its peak in mid-1932 when almost 32% of Australians were out of work. Migrant Farm Workers – * In the early 1930’s thousands of desperate workers across America migrated to California * California advertised an abundance of fertile land, and many migrants were agriculturists * Because the massive drought had encompassed the Great Plains, many farmers abandoned the land * Californian farmers produced mostly fruits and dairy products, but the central valleys of California were poorly irrigated The American Dream – * Is essentially an idea that suggests anyone living in the US can succeed through hard work and has the potential to lead a flourishing life * Was created in the 1600’s, by immigrant workers on farms Part 4: Meaning of the title The perfect schemes made by smart organisms (mice and humans) often go wrong because they were not thought out thoroughly. The failing schemes leave nothing but grief and pain, but in the end, it promises joy.

Defining Beauty Essay

The word â€Å"beauty† can mean an unlimited amount of things to so many people. Some people see beauty as a woman with a small figure, with her hair and makeup done like that of a model in a magazine. Others may see beauty as more of an internal asset, such as a woman giving more to this world than she knows she’ll ever get back. Still, many others may see beauty as something that is unattainable because the definition of it is so ironically undefined and ambiguous, that it may even be seen as non-existent. Beauty is extremely versatile and its definition is often debated because beauty has unlimited definitions. No one’s definition of beauty is wrong. However, it does exist and can be seen with the eyes and felt with the heart. The first and most commonly referred to definition of beauty is external beauty, or superficial beauty. â€Å"Beauty is only skin-deep†, as some people may say. The general public typically views beauty as something that often must be seen to be believed; a girl is not pretty unless she can prove it with appearance. â€Å"In the perpetual â€Å"body image debate† on Xanga and in the world, there are frequently posts that say, basically: â€Å"All sizes can be beautiful! It’s what’s inside that counts anyways!† Multiple commenters will agree with them, and everyone descends into gooey e-group-hugs. What they’re trying to do†¦ is nice. I won’t argue with â€Å"all sizes can be beautiful†Ã¢â‚¬â€œ I have my preferences and you have yours, and ideally we won’t bash one group or the other despite those preferences. I also won’t argue with â€Å"what’s inside counts,† because it’s obvious that one’s personality directly affects the way one is able to bond with people over time. But, to those who try to proclaim â€Å"looks don’t matter,† I say: Bullshit.† (Walker 2010). Whether this mentality is seen as ethically wrong or not, it IS a mentality and it IS acknowledged. If a person believes beauty is solely defined by physical appearance, then that is their individual opinion, and cannot be taken away from them, or marked as â€Å"wrong†. The second form of beauty, most naturally comes to mind as what’s known as â€Å"internal beauty†. You’ll most often hear things like â€Å"It’s what on the  inside that matters!† â€Å"Happy girls are the prettiest!† and the infamous â€Å"You have a great personality and that’s what matters!† Internal beauty IS what’s on the inside, obviously. Internal beauty is personality, charisma, lovingness, generosity; all the characteristics that typically make a person â€Å"beautiful† on the inside. â€Å"As I grew up, I began to realize outer beauty was not so important to make someone good. I remember a friend of mine who was so beautiful that every classmate wanted to talk with her, but she was very arrogant. She believed that she could do everything she wanted because she was so beautiful, but she lost friends one by one. My poor friend! But she learned a good lesson: inner beauty is more important than outer beau ty. After she learned that, she changed her attitude and made friends again.† (Ji 2010). Many people still believe that inner beauty is as important as outer beauty, while still some believe it is more important. This mentality is not wrong because it makes sense to the people that believe it. It must be acknowledged whether people think personality is more important than makeup, or not. And still, some people believe and feel that beauty can only be defined by the person who feels it. In other words, my internal and external beauty is examined and defined by the rest of the world, without me having anything to say about it. This particular definition says that that individual person, in this example being me; that I get to say whether I’m beautiful or not based off of how I feel, not the rest of the world, based off of one or both of the previous definitions. It is simply, what you define yourself as. â€Å"I know I looked beautiful that morning. Perhaps not to the young man holding his toddler in his arms who rode the elevator with me; perhaps not to the friend I met for lunch, a true believer in Botox; perhaps not to passersby on the street; but I knew it for a certainty. I was beautiful. I don’t believe that inner beauty is sufficient in this cruel world. That’s the pap one tells a child. I don’t believe that positive thinking improves your skin tone or that loving or being loved changes the shape of your nose or restores the thickness and color of hair, but I do know that there is a way of being beautiful, even as age takes its toll, that has something to do with the spirit filling with joy, something to do with the union with another human being, with the sense of having done well at something  enormously important, like making happy a man who has made you happy often enough.† (Roiphe 2012). Beauty cannot be defined as a single thing. It has no bounds; no limits as to say how beautiful something or someone can be, or if it’s beautiful or not. Beauty can’t be erased because it is forever living. No person sees it the exact same way. No one’s definition of it is incorrect because it has many definitions. Beauty exists, and can be felt more and more ways every day of our lives. Works Cited Ji, EunSuk. â€Å"Inner Beauty Is the Real Beauty – TOPICS Online Magazine | ESl/EFL | Sandy and Thomas Peters.† Inner Beauty Is the Real Beauty – TOPICS Online Magazine | ESl/EFL | Sandy and Thomas Peters. N.p., 07 Dec. 2010. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. . Roiphe, Anne. â€Å"What Makes Me Feel Beautiful.† Real Simple. N.p., 13 Aug. 2012. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. . Walker, Alexia. â€Å"Outer Beauty Totally Matters (Don’t Try to Deny It).† lovelyish.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Nov 2013. .

Essay 2 - see attachment for topic and readings

2 - see attachment for topic and readings - Essay Example This view divides cities by class into areas occupied by those who control the means of production i.e. the bourgeoisie as well as the proletariat who works for a living. The Marxist view of the development of cities certainly takes class very seriously as there are rich neighborhoods and poor areas which are demarcated quite strongly by the developments taking place in a city. With time, the changes in the development of the city took factories out of the city centers and moved them to the outer edges of the city limits. Gary, Indiana is used as an example of that occurrence and the cause given for this change is that the factory owners wanted to avoid the presence of unions on their factory floors. Unions were difficult to form and maintain outside the city limits therefore unions could be avoided in this manner and control over the workers could be maintained with a capitalist agenda (Gordon, 1978). The same ideas are supported by Harris & Lewis (2001) but they given other economic reasons for the changes in the cityscapes of North America. They suggest that polynucleation was the reason for these changes and this was caused by the diversification of population and the lack of availability of workers of one type or another in a given location. Low prices for land as well as labor also helped the cause of those manufacturers that were ready to offset the cost of moving their production units by gaining access to cheaper tools for producing their goods. Thus the reasons for the development of our cities as they have are not based on social theory, but rather an economic agenda. Perhaps the most important point made in the both the essays is the idea that technology will affect the development of cities in the future as it has done so in the past. For example, the advent of the automobile meant that people could easily cover a lot of distance on their own without the use of trains or other transport and that meant that they

Compare the five Business functions in two organisations (SEE Essay

Compare the five Business functions in two organisations (SEE INSTRUCTIONS) - Essay Example Business functions are structured and operate differently in different contexts. With this in mind we shall consider here the success or failure of two competitors namely, Wal-Mart and Kmart, both of who are general merchandise discounters. While Sam Walton (CEO Wal-mart) did start off with the basic idea borrowed from Kmart but his strategy was unique. At the outset it was the marketing strategies of Wal-Mart that fetched them a smooth take off. While Kmart opened up shops in large metropolitan cities like New York, Wal-Mart opened good sized stores in smaller towns. Wal-Mart chose isolated rural towns where more than one retailer could not survive and hence in no time all the local shops had to down their shutters. While Kmart wanted to supply private cheaper brands to the affluent, Wal-Mart chose the national brands at low prices. This could be possible because of bulk purchase. He managed to keep the prices so low that people could shop from home rather than make trips to the cities. They understood the needs of the customer. Human resource management was another stronghold of Wal-Mart as right from the inception they did not believe in allowing or forming a union (Mitchell Levy and Paul A. Losch 2002). They felt it was detrimental to the interest of the company and the union only fed itself from both the management and the labors. They believed in exhorting their own people, motivating them through incentives and awards such as company stocks by which they could also make up for the low wages. A corporate culture was set which encouraged the employees and managers to consider the customer the focus of business. The customer is the king was the policy at Wal-mart whereas at Kmart customer service was poor. Staffing is a perennial challenge for any business. They should know when and where to employ the right number of people. This is another sector where Kmart lost

Weekly progress report Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Weekly progress report - Coursework Example I also spent another 2 days in reading the research paper written by Ibrahim Kushchu, International University of Japan (p. 2- 12). The research paper offers a brief insight over the e-government and m-government along with stating the overall significance and applications of m-government in different countries. This reading will help me in the literature review especially in stating the shift from e-government to m-government and highlighting the importance and relevance of m-government in the social environment. I have not read the entire paper as I just wanted to have an overview of m-government that will be further strengthened as I proceed further with the literature review part I spent 2 more days in searching more articles over the internet on m-government and went through the article published on the website of Mobile Government Consortium International offering an understanding over the m-government In the coming week, I will write the research aim and objectives along with stating the research questions. This will take 2-3 hours of time based on the understanding of the research topic. At the same time, I will go through the research paper based on the adoption of m-government services in developing countries published by International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Research. This will take 2 days of time and will help me in strengthening my knowledge over the importance and relevance of m-government. This will also help me in the literature review chapter I will also search few articles on importance and introduction of m-government in Oman. This will take maximum 2 days of time including searching and a bit of reading. This will help me in forming a perspective over the pros and cons and acceptance and resistance for m-government in the context of Oman. If time permits, I will also form an understanding over the actual applications and advantages of m-government over the e-government in the context of

Islamic View of Medical Treatment Research Paper

Islamic View of Medical Treatment - Research Paper Example However, a new branch of thinkers interpret the possibilities in the principle and suggest that a temporary abstinence of child bearing chosen with mutual consent is acceptable by way of physical contraception methods which do not affect the structure and function of the body. Ap0artr from the application of medical resources for birth control, there is an equal challenge on the issues related to fertility treatments. Most of the women consider discussing problems related to conceiving a child and giving birth as taboo and ignore the chances of consulting a doctor for treatment of their failure. While on the other hand, pregnancy is the gift of God as per the belief of this religion and it must be treated as virtue of a woman to give effect to the sperm of the male. The Qur’an teaches us to respect the ability of women to bear a child as it says â€Å"If they have a burden (pregnant) then spend on them until they bring forth their burden† (Ch: 65:6, cited in Angelfire.c om, n.d) . Religious views are against the artificial methods of fertilizing as it strongly condemns the factor of the woman’s exposure of her private parts to a person other than her husband. However, the modern society is willing to allow medical treatment for infertility subject to conditions applied as per the guidelines of the derived principles. Euthanasia and Organ Donation As Islam has its own guidelines about handling birth and fertility related affairs, so it has a claim on the debate of euthanasia or the right of a person to choose death with assistance of a physician. On the basis of Islamic views, withdrawal of life supporting apparatuses for granting relief to an individual is not acceptable. Though there were primitive... This essay studies and evaluates some of the religious implications of medical treatment methods practiced by the scientifically inspired new society. As per the religious concept, marriage is meant for the basic purpose of having children as a contribution to the growth of the community. Any attempt to deliberate termination of pregnancy or the practices for attaining sterility endorses the principles of this religion. The fetus has an independent right to live within the mother’s body; therefore an attempt to abort it is an assault as well as a murder. Surgical methods of sterilization such as vasectomy and hysterectomy are not permissible in the religious point of view. As Islam has its own guidelines about handling birth and fertility related affairs, so it has a claim on the debate of euthanasia or the right of a person to choose death with assistance of a physician. On the basis of Islamic views, withdrawal of life supporting apparatuses for granting relief to an individ ual is not acceptable. In conclusion, Islam is a religion with absolute concern for integrity and the value of life. It believes in the principle of power of all knowledge meant for the well being of believers under the guidelines of the Prophet. Therefore the topics discussed in the essay are subject to scientific consultation in the present day community while considering the essential factor that the religion never allowed them for convenience but it approves them for the concept that necessity can sometimes over rule prohibitions.